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Univers (French pronunciation: ​[ynivɛʁ]) is the name of a large sans-seriftypeface family designed by Adrian Frutiger and released by his employer Deberny & Peignot in 1957.^[1] Classified as a neo-grotesque sans-serif, one based on the model of nineteenth-century German typefaces such as Akzidenz-Grotesk, it was notable for its availability from the moment of its launch in a comprehensive range of weights and widths. The original marketing for Univers deliberately referenced the periodic table to emphasise its scope.^[2]

Univers was one of the first typeface families to fulfil the idea that a typeface should form a family of consistent, related designs. Past sans-serif designs such as Gill Sans had much greater differences between weights, while loose families such as American Type Founders' Franklin Gothic family often were advertised under different names for each style, to emphasise that they were not completely matching. By creating a matched range of styles and weights, Univers allowed documents to be created in one consistent typeface for all text, making it easier to artistically set documents in sans-serif type. This matched the desire among practitioners of the 'Swiss style' of typography for neutral sans-serif typefaces avoiding artistic excesses.

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The design concept of Univers was intended to take advantage of the new technology of phototypesetting, in which fonts were stored as glass discs rather than as solid metal type and matrices for every size to be used. Deberny & Peignot had established itself as a leader in this technology, although as by the time of its launch metal type was still very popular the design was also released in this form. Univers was rapidly licensed and re-released by Monotype, Linotype, American Type Founders, IBM and others for phototypesetting, for metal type and reproduction by typewriter.^[3] Historian James Mosley has described it as 'probably the last major' release of a large family as metal type.^[4]

• 4The Frutiger numbering system
• 5Releases

Characteristics[edit]

Frutiger in 1961, explaining why his design had rejected the geometric sans-serif design trend popular from the 1920s to the 1950s.^[5]

Univers is one of a group of neo-grotesquesans-serif typefaces, all released in 1957,^[6] that includes Folio and Neue Haas Grotesk (later renamed Helvetica). As all are based on Akzidenz-Grotesk, these three faces are sometimes confused with each other. These typefaces figure prominently in the Swiss Style of graphic design.

Univers was released after a long period in which geometric typefaces such as Futura had been popular. Frutiger disliked purely geometric designs, finding them too rigid, following a common school of thought among Swiss designers of the period. While studying at the Kunstgewerbeschule (Arts and Crafts School) in Zürich, he had begun to sketch a revived grotesque family based on nineteenth-century grotesques, at the time considered antiquated outside Switzerland. He described Univers in 1998 as having a 'visual sensitivity between thick and thin' strokes, avoiding perfect geometry.^[7]

Different weights and variations within the type family are designated by the use of numbers rather than names, a system since adopted by Frutiger for other type designs. Frutiger envisioned a large family with multiple widths and weights that maintained a unified design idiom. However, the actual typeface names within Univers family include both number and letter suffixes. The design was developed from 1953 to a final release in 1957.

Like most grotesque and neo-grotesque sans-serifs, Univers's slanted form is an oblique, in which the letterforms are slanted, with minor corrections but no other major alterations. This is different from a true italic, in which the letterforms become modified to resemble handwriting more.^[8] In the original design, Frutiger chose obliques with the extremely aggressive slant of sixteen degrees, which was reduced to twelve in some later releases. Linotype Univers (below) returns to the original angle.

Frutiger's original ampersand was a true 'et' ligature, similar to that in Trebuchet among others. Frutiger later provided an alternative for non French-speaking countries in which the form might be less familiar.^[9][10]

The Deberny & Peignot library was acquired in 1972 by Haas Type Foundry. It was transferred into the D. Stempel AG and Linotype collection in 1985 and 1989 respectively upon the Haas'sche Schriftgiesserei's acquisition and closure; it is now owned by Monotype following its purchase of Linotype in 2007.^[11] An independent version of Univers was licensed by the Berthold Type Foundry for its phototypesetting system with adaptations by Günter Gerhard Lange; Frutiger wrote in his autobiography that he had some affection for it.^[9]

Comparison with Akzidenz-Grotesk, Folio, and Helvetica[edit]

Univers is similar in design to other European grotesque fonts, of which Akzidenz-Grotesk, Folio, and Helvetica are among the most common. Differences include:

• The tail of 'a' and the top of '1' are much less rounded.
• Upper-case 'G' is formed without an arrow head (called a spur).
• Both arms of 'K' join at the stem.
• The tail of 'Q' runs along the baseline.
• The tail of 'R' is curved (compared with Akzidenz-Grotesk).
• The top of 't' is angled.
• The dot of the 'i' is not square but a rectangle.
• Lower-case 'y' has a straight descender.
• Many of the numerals in Univers have straight vs. curved ascenders
• Helvetica tends to have a slightly greater x-height than Univers
• Univers generally has quite a wide spacing between letters, and its low x-height gives it a more low-slung, splayed appearance than Helvetica, especially in bold.

Frutiger himself has commented: 'Helvetica is the jeans, and Univers the dinner jacket.'^[12]Walter Tracy described it as better proportioned for text than Helvetica: 'more original and subtle in its modelling than Helvetica and, because its character spacing was properly done, a better performer in text composition.'^[13] Mosley has described its even design as 'rather bland' and noted that Monotype's eccentric, chaotically organised Grotesque family remained popular with more 'iconoclastic' printers in the 1960s.^[14][4] Stephen Coles describes Univers as 'in some ways, even more spare [than Helvetica] (no beards or tails)'^[15] and Simon Loxley comments that Helvetica 'escapes the chilliness of Univers..it does have some elusive quality that gives it a friendlier feel'.^[16] Dutch font designer Martin Majoor, while praising Univers for its 'almost scientific' range of weights, criticised it for its lack of originality: 'basing a sans serif on another is rather cheap.'^[8] Frutiger's later landmark sans-serif designs, Avenir and Frutiger, would take very different, more humanist and geometric approaches.

Usage[edit]

Univers enjoyed great popularity in the 1960s and 1970s because many corporations adopted it for usage. It is used in a modified version by the new Swiss International Air Lines (previously, Swissair used the typeface Futura), Deutsche Bank and for signage all over the world. It was also adopted by the 1972 Summer Olympics organizers for its image and emblem also in 1976 Summer Olympics. General Electric used the font from 1986 to 2004 before switching to GE Inspira.^[17]Apple Inc. previously used this typeface as well as its condensed oblique variant for the keycaps on many of its keyboards, before completely switching to VAG Rounded in August 2007 with the introduction of new keyboards and the new iMac (their notebook computers already featured that typeface since 1999). Munich Re used a custom version of Univers until 2009.^[18]

The Montreal Metro, Bay Area Rapid Transit,^[19] some Toronto subway stations, Frankfurt International Airport and the Walt Disney World road system also make extensive use of this typeface (though Disney is in the process of replacing it with Avenir). Some but not all London boroughs use Univers Bold Condensed for street signs.^[20] The Royal Air Force adopted the font for all merchandising material in 2006 to complement its new corporate logo. Ordnance Survey also adapted Univers for use on their maps (added tails on the lowercase l and t, and other small changes to help distinguish the type from the map details) of which they own all rights to. In 2006, the Office of Fair Trading adopted Univers as its corporate typographic voice in size 12-point so that visually impaired people can more easily read its publications.

Univers was used for George W. Bush's campaign logos in both 2000 and 2004. Bush's 2000 campaign logo was set in Univers 85 Extra Black, while the 2004 campaign logo used Univers 85 Extra Black Oblique (slanted).

Audi Sans is a variant based on Univers,^[21] designed by Ole Schäfer.^[22] It became Audi's corporate identity font in the 1990s.^[23] when Audi contracted MetaDesign to support Audi's brand management strategy.^[24] The font was used extensively by Audi, appearing in sales literature, corporate communications, owners' documentation and even on the vehicles themselves in the instrument panel graphics and their MMI dashboard displays.

Both the current and the former eBay logo are set in Univers.^[25]

The logo of MGA Entertainment line of toys on television shows also uses Univers.^{[citation needed]}

Stations owned by Fox Television Stations use Univers in their graphics.

The Frutiger numbering system[edit]

Adrian Frutiger designed his unique classification system to eliminate naming and specifying confusion. It was first used with Univers, and was adopted for use in the Frutiger, Avenir, and Neue Helvetica typeface families.

The number used in a font is a concatenation of two numbers. The first digit defines weight, while the second defines width and whether it is oblique or not.

(note: oblique is not strict italic)

Due to some typeface manufacturers’ failure to understand and implement the system correctly, however, things have actually become more confusing. To further complicate matters, the numbering system is not consistently applied to the Univers font family. In older publications, all oblique fonts have even-numbered 2nd values; but in digital versions, both odd and even 2nd values have been used on oblique fonts, but not in all font formats or weights. For example, Univers 55 Roman Oblique has both Windows menu names and PostScript full names as Univers LT 55 Oblique and Univers 56 Oblique, but only for the Windows PostScript version of the font; however, in Univers 85 Extra Black Oblique, there is no font named Univers 86 in any format. Nevertheless, oblique Univers fonts always have even-numbered 2nd value.

Inconsistent usage aside, the syntax of 2nd value is also inconsistent with 1st value. Bigger 1st value implies the glyph of a given character uses more horizontal space, but it has opposite meaning in 2nd value.

Linotype numbering system[edit]

In Linotype Univers and Univers Next font family, a 3-number system is used. First numeral describes font weight, second numeral describes font width, third numeral describes position.^[26]

Unlike the original Univers, tilted fonts in Linotype Univers and derivative font families have not been named 'oblique'.

Releases[edit]

Versions of Univers have been released for almost every major typesetting system, including versions for a wide range of writing systems and with additional features such as schoolbook characters.

Although Univers was originally conceived to take advantage of the cost-saving properties of phototypesetting (Deberny & Peignot, hoping to leapfrog their competitors by taking full advantage of the new technology, advertised their Lumitype glass master discs as each replacing three tons of brass matrices^[27][28]), Deberny & Peignot arranged licensing deals with type foundries such as Monotype for wider release.^[29] Univers was quite successful in metal type, with several weights among Monotype's best-selling of all time despite being released at the very end of the metal type era, although Frutiger felt that the Monotype version, which some later versions copied, was limited by the antiquated Monotype technical system.^[30]

Pre-digital versions[edit]

Frutiger (with Howard 'Bud' Kettler) adapted Univers for the IBM Selectric Composer in the 1960s.^[31][32] This was an ultra-premium electric 'golfball' typewriter system, intended to be used for producing high-quality office documents or copy to be photographically enlarged for small-scale printing projects.^[33] Unlike most typewriters, the Composer produced proportional type, rather than monospaced letters. Ultimately the system proved a transitional product, as it was displaced by cheaper phototypesetting, and then in the 1980s by word processors and general-purpose computers.^[34] The release was somewhat compromised due having to be made to fit a 9-unit escapement system.

Several pirate versions of Univers have been released taking advantage of the lack of copyright protection of typeface designs. One unusual modified version was 'Univers Flair', a 1970s phototype clone from Phil Martin's 'Alphabet Innovations', adding ostentatious swashes.^[35] Frutiger, who found it amusing, placed a specimen on his office wall.^[36]

URW Classic Sans[edit]

Univers 45, 55, 65, 57, 67, 53 and 63 (regular and bold weights with obliques in regular and condensed widths) are incorporated in the PostScript 3 digital printing standard as core fonts. As part of the Ghostscript project to create a free alternative to PostScript, URW++ donated its clones of these weights under the series name U001, and then as URW Classic Sans under the Aladdin Free Public License.^[37][38]

Linotype Univers[edit]

In 1997 Frutiger reworked the whole Univers family in cooperation with Linotype, thus creating the Linotype Univers, which consists of 63 fonts. By reworking the Univers more 'extreme' weights as Ultra Light or Extended Heavy were added as well as some monospaced typefaces. The numbering system was extended to three digits to reflect the larger number of variations in the family.

In addition to extra font width and weight combinations, the fonts are digitally interpolated, so that character widths scale uniformly with changing font weights. For fonts within a specific font weight, caps height, x-height, ascender and descender heights are the same. For oblique fonts, the slope is increased from 12° to the 16° of Frutiger's original drawings, and the character widths were adjusted optically. In addition, characters such as &, ®, euro sign, are redesigned, the ampersand to Frutiger's preferred true et ligature.^[10]

Linotype Univers Typewriter[edit]

Linotype Univers Typewriter is a sub-family of fixed-width fonts under the Linotype Univers family. Four fonts have been produced in Regular and Bold weights, with obliques on each weight. Characters such as 1, I, J, M, W, i, j, l, dotless j are drawn differently.

Univers Next (2010)[edit]

In 2010, Linotype extended the Linotype Univers family with true small caps and renamed as 'Univers Next'. All later extensions of the font family were marketed under the Univers Next title.

The font family includes all fonts previously released under the Linotype Univers title.

Univers Cyrillic, Univers Pro Cyrillic (2010)[edit]

In April 2010, Linotype announced the release of Cyrillic versions of the original Univers family, in TrueType, PostScript, and OpenType Pro font formats. Released fonts include Univers 55 Roman Oblique; Univers Pro Cyrillic 45 (roman, oblique), 55 (roman, oblique), 65 (roman, oblique), 75 (roman, oblique), 85 (roman, oblique), 47 (roman, oblique), 57 (roman, oblique), 67 (roman, oblique), 39 (roman), 49 (roman), 59 (roman).^[39]

Univers Next W1G[edit]

This version supports Greek and Cyrillic characters.

The font family includes 12 fonts (330, 331, 430, 431, 530, 531, 630, 631, 730, 731, 830, 831) in 6 weights and 1 width, with complementary obliques.

The Cyrillic version was released as Univers Next Cyrillic in OpenType Pro format.

Univers Next Arabic (2011)[edit]

It is a companion to the Latin typeface Univers Next designed by Nadine Chahine with the consulting of Adrian Frutiger. It is a modern Kufi design with large open counters and low contrast, mainly designed to work in titles and short runs of text. The font includes the basic Latin part of Univers Next and support for Persian, Urdu and Arabic. It also includes proportional and tabular numerals for the supported languages.

The font family consists of 3 fonts (330, 430, 630) in 3 weights and 1 width, without obliques. OpenType features include fraction, localized forms, proportional figures, contextual alternates, discretionary ligatures, initial forms, terminal forms, glyph composition/decomposition, isolated forms, medial forms, required ligatures.

References[edit]

1. ^Meggs, Philip B. (1998). 'Meggs' History of Graphic Design - 4th Edition'. John Wiley & Sons. p.361. ISBN0-471-69902-0
2. ^Univers specimen book. American Type Founders. 1968. Retrieved 18 September 2015.
3. ^Budrick, Callie; Biemann, Emil (1961). 'Subtleties of the Univers'. Print. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
4. ^ ^abMosley, James (1999). The Nymph and the Grot. London. p. 9.
5. ^Frutiger, Adrian (2014). Typefaces: The Complete Works. p. 88. ISBN9783038212607.
6. ^Spiekermann, Erik and E.M. Ginger (2003). Stop Stealing Sheep & find out how type works. Peachpit Press, p. 65. ISBN978-0-201-70339-9
7. ^Schwemer-Scheddin, Yvonne. 'Reputations: Adrian Frutiger'. Eye. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
8. ^ ^abMajoor, Martin. 'My type design philosophy'. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
9. ^ ^abFrutiger, Adrian. Typefaces: The Complete Works. pp. 97–102.
10. ^ ^abShaw, Paul. 'Flawed Typefaces'. Print magazine. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
11. ^'Univers'. MyFonts. Monotype. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
12. ^Majoor, Martin (Spring 2007). 'Inclined to be dull'. Eye. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
13. ^Tracy, Walter. Letters of Credit. p. 99.
14. ^Mosley, James. 'The Nymph and the Grot, an update'. Type Foundry (blog). Retrieved 6 March 2016.
15. ^Coles, Stephen. 'Helvetica and Alternatives to Helvetica'. FontFeed (archived). Archived from the original on 21 September 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2018.
16. ^Loxley, Simon (12 June 2006). Type: The Secret History of Letters. I.B.Tauris. pp. 172–4. ISBN978-1-84511-028-4.
17. ^'A Website about Corporate Identity', entry for GE^{[permanent dead link]}
18. ^'2010 REBRAND 100 Notable - Munich Re - Rebranding by MetaDesign German'. Archived from the original on 2013-07-26. Retrieved 2015-03-09.
19. ^'BART Wayfinding: The Shotgun Technique'.
20. ^'Photo.net'. Archived from the original on 2007-03-16. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
21. ^'Linotype Fonts in Use - Ads / Recreation'.
22. ^Primetype GmbH. 'primetype.com'.
23. ^Neil Macmillan. An A-Z of Type Designers, p29-30. 2006. King Publishing Ltd. ISBN1-85669-395-3/ISBN1 85669 395 3
24. ^'Home - MetaDesign - Berlin'. MetaDesign - Berlin.
25. ^'Electronics, Cars, Fashion, Collectibles, Coupons and More - eBay'. Archived from the original on 2012-09-16. Retrieved 2012-10-11.
26. ^'Linotype Platinum Collection - Linotype Univers 3.0'.
27. ^Savoie, Alice. 'French Type Foundries in the Twentieth Century'. Type Culture. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
28. ^Boag, Andrew (2000). 'Monotype and Phototypesetting'(PDF). Journal of the Printing History Society: 57–77. Archived from the original(PDF) on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
29. ^Moran, James (1968). 'Stanley Morison'(PDF). Monotype Recorder. 43 (3): 28. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
30. ^Randle, John (1984). 'The Monotype'. Matrix. 4: 42–54. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
31. ^Macmillan, Neil (2006). An A-Z of Type Designers. Laurence King Publishing. p. 118. ISBN978-1-85669-395-0.
32. ^Frutiger, Adrian (1967-02-27). 'The IBM Selectric Composer: The Evolution of Composition Technology'. IBM Journal of Research and Development. IBM. 12 (1): 9–14. doi:10.1147/rd.121.0009. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
33. ^Stamm, Swiss Foundation Type and Typography ; edited by Heidrun Osterer and Philipp (2009). Adrian Frutiger typefaces : the complete works (English ed.). Basel: Birkhäuser. p. 192. ISBN978-3764385811.
34. ^McEldowney, Dennis (1 October 2013). A Press Achieved: the Emergence of Auckland University Press, 1927-1972. Auckland University Press. pp. 102–5. ISBN978-1-86940-671-4.
35. ^Simonson, Mark. 'Interview with Phil Martin'. Typographica. Retrieved 30 August 2014.
36. ^Frutiger, Adrian. Typefaces: The Complete Works. pp. 105, 425.
37. ^'Ghostscript'. Ghostscript. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
38. ^'fontlibrary.org'. fontlibrary.org. Retrieved 4 May 2018.
39. ^'Cyrillic Fonts - Linotype Font Feature'.

External links[edit]

• Univers specimen book, 1968, published by ATF for the American market

In typography and lettering, a sans-serif, sans serif, gothic, or simply sans letterform is one that does not have extending features called 'serifs' at the end of strokes.^[1] Sans-serif fonts tend to have less line width variation than serif fonts. In most print, they are often used for headings rather than for body text.^[2] They are often used to convey simplicity and modernity or minimalism.

Sans-serif fonts have become the most prevalent for display of text on computer screens. On lower-resolution digital displays, fine details like serifs may disappear or appear too large. The term comes from the French word sans, meaning 'without' and 'serif' of uncertain origin, possibly from the Dutch word schreef meaning 'line' or pen-stroke.

Before the term 'sans-serif' became common in English typography, a number of other terms had been used. One of these outmoded terms for sans serif was gothic, which is still used in East Asian typography and sometimes seen in font names like News Gothic, Highway Gothic, or Trade Gothic.

Sans-serif fonts are sometimes, especially in older documents, used as a device for emphasis, due to their typically blacker type color.

• 1Classification
  • 1.5Other or mixed
• 2History
• 3Other names

Classification[edit]

For the purposes of type classification, sans-serif designs are usually divided into three or four major groups, the fourth being the result of splitting the grotesque category into grotesque and neo-grotesque.^[3][4]

Grotesque[edit]

This group features most of the early (19th century to early 20th) sans-serif designs. Influenced by Didone serif fonts of the period and signpainting traditions, these were often quite solid, bold designs suitable for headlines and advertisements. The early sans-serif typefaces often did not feature a lower case or italics, since they were not needed for such uses. They were sometimes released by width, with a range of widths from extended to normal to condensed, with each style different, meaning to modern eyes they can look quite irregular and eccentric.^[5][6] Grotesque fonts have limited variation of stroke width (often none perceptible in capitals). The terminals of curves are usually horizontal, and many have a spurred 'G' and an 'R' with a curled leg. Capitals tend to be of relatively uniform width. Cap height and ascender height are generally the same to create a more regular effect in texts such as titles with many capital letters, and descenders are often short for tighter linespacing.^[7] Most avoid having a true italic in favour of a more restrained oblique or sloped design, although at least sans-serif true italics were offered.^[8][9]

Examples of grotesque fonts include Akzidenz Grotesk, Venus, News Gothic, Franklin Gothic and Monotype Grotesque. Akzidenz Grotesk Old Face, Knockout, Grotesque No. 9 and Monotype Grotesque are examples of digital fonts that retain more of eccentricities of some of the early sans-serif types.^{[10][11][12][13]} The term realist has also been applied to these designs due to their practicality and simplicity.

Neo-grotesque[edit]

As the name implies, these modern designs consist of a direct evolution of grotesque types. They are relatively straightforward in appearance with limited width variation. Unlike earlier grotesque designs, many were issued in extremely large and versatile families from the time of release, making them easier to use for body text. Similar to grotesque typefaces, neogrotesques often feature capitals of uniform width and a quite 'folded-up' design, in which strokes (for example on the 'c') are curved all the way round to end on a perfect horizontal or vertical. Helvetica is an example of this. Others such as Univers are less regular.

Neo-grotesque type began in the 1950s with the emergence of the International Typographic Style, or Swiss style. Its members looked at the clear lines of Akzidenz Grotesk (1898) as an inspiration to create rational, almost neutral typefaces. In 1957 the release of Helvetica, Univers, and Folio, the first typefaces categorized as neo-grotesque, had a strong impact internationally: Helvetica came to be the most used typeface for the following decades.^[14]

Other, later neo-grotesques include Unica, Imago and Rail Alphabet, and in the digital period Acumin, San Francisco and Roboto.^{[15][16][17][18][19][20]}

Geometric[edit]

As their name suggests, Geometric sans-serif typefaces are based on geometric shapes, like near-perfect circles and squares.^[21] Common features are a nearly-exactly circular capital 'O' and a 'single-story' lowercase letter 'a'. The 'M' is often splayed and the capitals of varying width, following the classical model. Of these four categories, geometric fonts tend to be the least useful for body text and often used for headings and small passages of text.

The geometric sans originated in Germany in the 1920s.^[22] Two early efforts in designing geometric types were made by Herbert Bayer and Jakob Erbar, who worked respectively on Universal Typeface (unreleased at the time but revived digitally as Architype Bayer) and Erbar (circa 1925).^[23] In 1927 Futura, by Paul Renner, was released to great acclaim and popularity.^[24]

Geometric sans-serif fonts were popular from the 1920s and 1930s due to their clean, modern design, and many new geometric designs and revivals have been created since.^[b] Notable geometric types of the period include Kabel, Semplicità, Nobel and Metro; more recent designs in the style include ITC Avant Garde, Brandon Grotesque, Gotham and Avenir. Many geometric sans-serif alphabets of the period, such as those created by the Bauhaus art school (1919-1933) and modernist poster artists, were hand-lettered and not cut into metal type at the time.^[26]

A separate inspiration for many types considered 'geometric' in design has been the simplified shapes of letters engraved or stenciled on metal and plastic in industrial use, which often follow a simplified structure and are sometimes known as 'rectilinear' for their use of straight vertical and horizontal lines. Designs considered geometric in principles but which are less descended from the Futura/Erbar/Kabel tradition include Bank Gothic, DIN 1451, Eurostile and Handel Gothic, along with many of the fonts designed by Ray Larabie.^[27][28]

Humanist[edit]

Humanist sans-serifs take inspiration from traditional letterforms, such as Roman square capitals, traditional serif fonts and calligraphy. Many have true italics rather than an oblique, ligatures and even swashes in italic. One of the earliest humanist designs was Edward Johnston's Johnston typeface of c. 1916, and, a decade later, Gill Sans (Eric Gill, 1928).^[29] Edward Johnston, a calligrapher by profession, was inspired by classic letter forms, especially the capital letters on the Column of Trajan.^[30]

Humanist designs vary more than gothic or geometric designs.^[31] Some humanist designs have stroke modulation (strokes that clearly vary in width along their line) or alternating thick and thin strokes. These include most popularly Hermann Zapf's Optima (1958), a typeface expressly designed to be suitable for both display and body text.^[32] Some humanist designs may be more geometric, as in Gill Sans and Johnston (especially their capitals), which like Roman capitals are often based on perfect squares, half-squares and circles, with considerable variation in width. These somewhat architectural designs may feel too stiff for body text.^[29] Others such as Syntax, Goudy Sans and Sassoon Sans more resemble handwriting, serif fonts or calligraphy.

Frutiger, from 1976, has been particularly influential in the development of the modern humanist sans genre, especially designs intended to be particularly legible above all other design considerations. The category expanded greatly during the 1980s and 1990s, partly as a reaction against the overwhelming popularity of Helvetica and Univers and also due to the need for legible fonts on low-resolution computer displays.^{[33][34][35][36]} Designs from this period intended for print use include FF Meta, Myriad, Thesis, Charlotte Sans, Bliss and Scala Sans, while designs created for computer use include Microsoft's Tahoma, Trebuchet, Verdana, Calibri and Corbel, as well as Lucida Grande, Fira Sans and Droid Sans. Humanist sans-serif designs can (if appropriately proportioned and spaced) be particularly suitable for use on screen or at distance, since their designs can be given wide apertures or separation between strokes, which is not a conventional feature on grotesque and neo-grotesque designs.

Other or mixed[edit]

Due to the diversity of sans-serif typefaces, many do not fit neatly into the above categories. For example, Neuzeit S has both neo-grotesque and geometric influences, as does Hermann Zapf's URW Grotesk. Other 'trans-sans' designs include Whitney and Klavika. Sans-serif fonts intended for signage, such as Transport and Highway Gothic used on road signs, may have unusual features to enhance legibility and differentiate characters, such as a lower-case 'L' with a curl or 'i' with serif under the dot.^[37]

Modulated sans-serifs[edit]

A particular subgenre of sans-serifs is those such as Rothbury, Britannic, Radiant, and National Trust with obvious variation in stroke width. These have been called 'modulated' or 'stressed' sans-serifs. They are nowadays often placed within the humanist genre, although they predate Johnston which started the modern humanist genre. These may take inspiration from sources outside printing such as brush lettering or calligraphy.^[38]

History[edit]

Letters without serifs have been common in writing across history, for example in casual, non-monumental epigraphy of the classical period. However, Roman square capitals, the inspiration for much Latin-alphabet lettering throughout history, had prominent serifs. While simple sans-serif letters have always been common in 'uncultured' writing, such as basic handwriting, most artistically created letters in the Latin alphabet, both sculpted and printed, since the Middle Ages have been inspired by fine calligraphy, blackletter writing and Roman square capitals. As a result, printing done in the Latin alphabet for the first three hundred and fifty years of printing was 'serif' in style, whether in blackletter, roman type, italic or occasionally script.

The earliest printing typefaces which omitted serifs were not intended to render contemporary texts, but to represent inscriptions in Ancient Greek and Etruscan. Thus, Thomas Dempster's De Etruria regali libri VII (1723), used special types intended for the representation of Etruscan epigraphy, and in c. 1745, the Caslon foundry made Etruscan types for pamphlets written by Etruscan scholar John Swinton.^[39] Another niche used of a printed sans-serif letterform from in 1786 onwards was a rounded sans-serif script font developed by Valentin Haüy for the use of the blind to read with their fingers.^[40][41][42]

Developing popularity[edit]

Towards the end of the eighteenth century Neoclassicism led to architects increasingly incorporating ancient Greek and Roman designs in contemporary structures. The architect John Soane commonly used sans-serif letters on his drawings and architectural designs.^[43] Soane's inspiration was apparently the inscriptions dedicating the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli, Italy, with minimal serifs.^[43] These were then copied by other artists, and in London sans-serif capitals became popular for advertising, apparently because of the 'astonishing' effect the unusual style had on the public. The lettering style apparently became referred to as 'old Roman' or 'Egyptian' characters, referencing the classical past and a contemporary interest in Ancient Egypt and its blocky, geometric architecture.^[43][47]

Historian James Mosley, the leading expert on early revival of sans-serif letters, has written that 'in 1805 Egyptian letters were happening in the streets of London, being plastered over shops and on walls by signwriters, and they were astonishing the public, who had never seen letters like them and were not sure they wanted to.'^[48] A depiction of the style was shown in the European Magazine of 1805, described as 'old Roman' characters.^[49][50] However, the style did not become used in printing for some more years.^[d] (Early sans-serif signage was not printed from type but hand-painted or carved, since at the time it was not possible to print in large sizes. This makes tracing the descent of sans-serif styles hard, since a trend can arrive in the dated, printed record from a signpainting tradition which has left less of a record or at least no dates.)

The inappropriateness of the name was not lost on the poet Robert Southey, in his satirical Letters from England written in the character of a Spanish aristocrat.^[52][53] It commented: 'The very shopboards must be.. painted in Egyptian letters, which, as the Egyptians had no letters, you will doubtless conceive must be curious. They are simply the common characters, deprived of all beauty and all proportion by having all the strokes of equal thickness, so that those which should be thin look as if they had the elephantiasis.'^[54][43] Similarly, the painter Joseph Farington wrote in his diary on September 13, 1805 of a memorial to Isaac Hawkins Browne in the chapel of Trinity College, Cambridge, engraved 'in what is called Egyptian Characters which to my eye had a disagreeable effect.'^[55][43]

Around 1816, the Ordnance Survey began to use 'Egyptian' lettering, monoline sans-serif capitals, to mark ancient Roman sites. This lettering was printed from copper plate engraving.^[49][42]

Entry into printing[edit]

Around 1816, William Caslon IV produced the first sans-serif printing type in England for the Latin alphabet, a capitals-only face under the title 'Two Lines English Egyptian', where 'Two Lines English' referred to the font's body size, which equals to about 28 points.^[58][59] Although it is known from its appearances in the firm's specimen books, no uses of it from the period have been found; Mosley speculates that it may have been commissioned by a specific client.^[60][e]

A second hiatus in interest in sans-serif appears to have lasted for about twelve years, when the Vincent Figgins foundry of London issued a new sans-serif in 1828.^[62] Thereafter sans-serifs rapidly began to be issued from London typefounders. Much imitated was the 1830 Thorowgood 'grotesque' face, arrestingly bold and highly condensed, similar in aesthetic effect to the slab serif and 'fat faces' of the period. Intended for advertising, these typefaces, often display capitals, became very successful.^[49] Sans-serif printing types began to appear thereafter in France and Germany.^[63][f]

Berthold Akzidenz Grotesk Condensed Font Free Download

Sans-serif lettering and fonts were popular due to their clarity and legibility at distance in advertising and display use, when printed very large or small. Because sans-serif type was often used for headings and commercial printing, many early sans-serif designs did not feature lower-case letters. Simple sans-serif capitals, without use of lower-case, became very common in uses such as tombstones of the Victorian period in Britain. The term 'grotesque' became commonly used to describe sans-serifs. The term 'grotesque' comes from the Italian word for cave, and was often used to describe Roman decorative styles found by excavation, but had long become applied in the modern sense for objects that appeared 'malformed or monstrous.'^[7]

The first use of sans serif as a running text has been proposed to be the short booklet Feste des Lebens und der Kunst: eine Betrachtung des Theaters als höchsten Kultursymbols (Celebration of Life and Art: A Consideration of the Theater as the Highest Symbol of a Culture),^[69] by Peter Behrens, in 1900.^[70]

Berthold Akzidenz Grotesk Medium Font Free Download

Twentieth-century sans-serifs[edit]

Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries sans-serif types were viewed with suspicion by many printers, especially those of fine book printing, as being fit only for advertisements (if that), and to this day most books remain printed in serif fonts as body text.^[73] This impression would not have been helped by the standard of common sans-serif types of the period, many of which now seem somewhat lumpy and eccentrically-shaped. In 1922, master printer Daniel Berkeley Updike described sans-serif fonts as having 'no place in any artistically respectable composing-room.'^[74] By 1937 he stated that he saw no need to change this opinion in general, though he felt that Gill Sans and Futura were the best choices if sans-serifs had to be used.^[75]

Through the early twentieth century, an increase in popularity of sans-serif fonts took place as more artistic sans-serif designs were released. While he disliked sans-serif fonts in general, the American printer J.L. Frazier wrote of Copperplate Gothic in 1925 that 'a certain dignity of effect accompanies..due to the absence of anything in the way of frills,' making it a popular choice for the stationery of professionals such as lawyers and doctors.^[76] As Updike's comments suggest, the new, more constructed humanist and geometric sans-serif designs were viewed as increasingly respectable, and were shrewdly marketed in Europe and America as embodying classic proportions (with influences of Roman capitals) while presenting a spare, modern image.^{[77][78][79][80][81]} Futura in particular was extensively marketed by Bauer and its American distribution arm by brochure as capturing the spirit of modernity, using the German slogan 'die Schrift unserer Zeit' ('the typeface of our time') and in English 'the typeface of today and tomorrow'; many typefaces were released under its influence as direct clones, or at least offered with alternate characters allowing them to imitate it if desired.^{[82][83][84][85]}

Grotesque sans-serif revival and the International Typographic Style[edit]

In the post-war period, an increase of interest took place in 'grotesque' sans-serifs.^[86][87][88] Writing in The Typography of Press Advertisement (1956), printer Kenneth Day commented that Stephenson Blake's eccentric Grotesque series had returned to popularity for having 'a personality sometimes lacking in the condensed forms of the contemporary sans cuttings of the last thirty years.'^[25] Leading type designer Adrian Frutiger wrote in 1961 on designing a new face, Univers, on the nineteenth-century model: 'Some of these old sans serifs have had a real renaissance within the last twenty years, once the reaction of the 'New Objectivity' had been overcome. A purely geometrical form of type is unsustainable.^[89]' Of this period in Britain, Mosley has commented that in 1960 'orders unexpectedly revived' for Monotype's eccentric Monotype Grotesque design: '[it] represents, even more evocatively than Univers, the fresh revolutionary breeze that began to blow through typography in the early sixties' and 'its rather clumsy design seems to have been one of the chief attractions to iconoclastic designers tired of the..prettiness of Gill Sans'.^[90][91]

By the 1960s, neo-grotesque fonts such as Univers and Helvetica had become popular through reviving the nineteenth-century grotesques while offering a more unified range of styles than on previous designs, allowing a wider range of text to be set artistically through setting headings and body text in a single family.^{[5][92][93][94][95]} The style of design using asymmetric layouts, Helvetica and a grid layout extensively has been called the Swiss or International Typographic Style.

Other names[edit]

Early[edit]

• Egyptian: the name of Caslon's first general-purpose sans-serif printing type; also documented as being used by Joseph Farington to describe seeing the sans serif inscription on John Flaxman's memorial to Isaac Hawkins Brown in 1805,^[49] though today the term is commonly used to refer to slab serif, not sans serif.
• Antique: particularly popular in France;^[39] some families such as Antique Olive, still carry the name.
• Grotesque: popularised by William Thorowgood of Fann Street Foundry from around 1830.^[7][62][96] The name came from the Italian word 'grottesco', meaning 'belonging to the cave'. In Germany, the name became Grotesk.
• Doric
• Gothic: popular with American type founders. Perhaps the first use of the term was due to the Boston Type and Stereotype Foundry, which in 1837 published a set of non-serifed typefaces under that name. It is believed that those were the first sans serif designs to be introduced in America.^[97] The term probably derived from the architectural definition, which is neither Greek nor Roman,^[98] and from the extended adjective term of 'Germany', which was the place where sans-serif typefaces became popular in the 19th to 20th centuries.^[99] Early adopters for the term includes Miller & Richard (1863), J. & R. M. Wood (1865), Lothian, Conner, Bruce McKellar. Although the usage is now rare in the English-speaking world, the term is commonly used in Japan and South Korea; in China they are known by the term heiti (Chinese: 黑體), literally meaning 'black type', which is probably derived from the mistranslation of Gothic as blackletter typeface, even though actual blackletter fonts have serifs.

Recents[edit]

• Lineale, or linear: The term was defined by Maximilien Vox in the VOX-ATypI classification to describe sans-serif types. Later, in British Standards Classification of Typefaces (BS 2961:1967), lineale replaced sans-serif as classification name.
• Simplices: In Jean Alessandrini's désignations préliminaries (preliminary designations), simplices (plain typefaces) is used to describe sans-serif on the basis that the name 'lineal' refers to lines, whereas, in reality, all typefaces are made of lines, including those that are not lineals.^[100]
• Swiss: It is used as a synonym to sans-serif, as opposed to roman (serif). The OpenDocument format (ISO/IEC 26300:2006) and Rich Text Format can use it to specify the sans-serif generic font family name for a font used in a document.^{[101][102][103]} Presumably refers to the popularity of sans-serif grotesque and neo-grotesque types in Switzerland.
• Industrial: used to refer to grotesque and neo-grotesque sans-serifs, that unlike humanist, geometric and decorative designs are not based on 'artistic' principles.^[104][105]

Gallery[edit]

• Dublin 1848, capitals-only heading. Reasonably conventional except for the crossed V-form 'W'.

• Light sans-serif being used for text. Germany, 1914

• German propaganda poster, 1914.

• Small art-noveau flourishes on the 'v' and 'e'. Ljubljana, 1916.

• Italic sans-serif, Dublin, 1916.

• A nearly monoline sans combined with a stroke-modulated sans used for the title. Austrian war bond poster, 1916.

• Broad block capitals. Hungarian film poster, 1918.

• Monoline sans-serif with art-nouveau influences visible in the tilted 'e' and 'a'. Note embedded umlaut at top left for tighter linespacing.

• Art Deco thick block inline sans-serif capitals, with inner details kept very thin. France, 1920s.

• Berthold Block, a thick German sans-serif with shortened descenders, allowing tight linespacing. Switzerland, 1928.

• Install windows 7 on acer q1vzc. Artistic sans-serif keeping curves to a minimum (the line 'O Governo do Estado'), Brazil, 1930.

• Lightly modulated sans serif lettering on a 1930s poster, pointed stroke endings suggesting a brush.

• Classic geometric sans-serif capitals, with points on the capital 'A' and 'N'. Australia, 1934.

• Dwiggins' Metrolite and Metroblack fonts, geometric types of the style popular in the 1930s.

• Stencilled lettering apparently based on Futura Black, 1937

• A 1940s American poster. The curve of the 'r' is a common feature in grotesque fonts, but the 'single-story' 'a' is a classic feature of geometric fonts from the 1920s onwards.

• 1952 Jersey holiday events brochure, using the popular Gill Sans-led British style of the period.

• Swiss-style poster using Helvetica, 1964. Tight spacing characteristic of the period.

• Ultra-condensed industrial sans-serif in the style of the 1960s; Berlin 1966.

• Neo-grotesque type, 1972, Switzerland: Helvetica or a close copy. The irregular baseline may be due to using transfers.

• Tightly-spaced ITC Avant Garde; 1976.

• Governmental poster using Univers, 1980

• Anti-nuclear poster, 1982

• 1997 film festival poster, Ankara.

• Pixelated sans-serif inspired by computers, London 1997

• Distorted sans-serif in the 'grunge typography' style, Ankara 2002.

See also[edit]

• San Serriffe, an April fool joke by Guardian newspaper

Notes[edit]

1. ^The original metal type of Akzidenz-Grotesk did not have an oblique; this was added in the 1950s, although many sans-serif obliques of the period are similar.
2. ^In this period and since, some sources have distinguished the nineteenth-century 'grotesque/gothic' designs from the 'sans-serifs' (those now categorised as humanist and geometric both) of the twentieth, or used some form of classification that emphasises a different between the groups.^[25]
3. ^Mosley's book on early sans-serifs The Nymph and the Grot is named for the sculpture. The name is a dual reference, also to 'grotesque' being coincidentally a term also applied to early sans-serif fonts, although Mosley suggests that the design does not seem to be a direct source of modern sans-serifs.
4. ^Apparently based on traditions in his industry, master sign-painter James Callingham writes in his textbook 'Sign Writing and Glass Embossing' (1871) that 'What one calls San-serif, another describes as grotesque; what is generally known as Egyptian, is some times called Antique, though it is difficult to say why, seeing that the letters so designated do not date farther back than the close of the last century. Egyptian is perhaps as good a term as could be given to the letters bearing that name, the blocks being characteristic of the Egyptian style of architecture. These letters were first used by sign-writers at the close of the last century, and were not introduced in printing till about twenty years later. Sign-writers were content to call them “block letters,” and they are sometimes so-called at the present day; but on their being taken in hand by the type founders, they were appropriately named Egyptian. The credit of having introduced the ordinary square or san-serif letters also belongs to the sign-writer, by whom they were employed half a century before the type founder gave them his attention, which was about the year 1810.'^[51][43]
5. ^The matrices used to cast the type also survive, although at least some characters were recut slightly later. Historian John A. Lane, who has examined surviving Caslon specimens and the matrices, suggests that the design is actually slightly earlier and may date to around 1812-4, noting that it appears in some undated but apparently earlier specimens.^[61]
6. ^A few theories about early sans-serifs now known to be incorrect may be mentioned here. One is that sans-serifs are based on either 'fat face typefaces' or slab-serifs with the serifs removed.^[64][65] It is now known that the inspiration was more classical antiquity, and sans-serifs appeared before the first dated appearance of slab-serif letterforms in 1810. A hint of the 'classical' inspiration of sans-serifs is the fact that they for a long time only appeared as capitals without a lower-case.^[42] The Schelter & Giesecke foundry also claimed during the 1920s to have been offering a sans-serif with lower-case by 1825.^[66][67] Mosley describes this as 'thoroughly discredited' and Walter Tracy describes the claimed date as 'forty years too early';^[42] Wolfgang Homola dates it to 1882 based on a study of Schelter & Giesecke specimens.^[68]
7. ^News Gothic's oblique was actually designed later than the original design, although many nineteenth-century sans-serifs are similar.

References[edit]

1. ^'sans serif' in The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol. 10, p. 421.
2. ^Serifs more used for headlinesArchived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^Childers; Griscti; Leben (January 2013). '25 Systems for Classifying Typography: A Study in Naming Frequency'(PDF). The Parsons Journal for Information Mapping. The Parsons Institute for Information Mapping. V (1). Retrieved 23 May 2014.
4. ^Baines, Phil; Haslam, Andrew (2005), Type and Typography, Laurence King Publishing, p. 51, ISBN9781856694377, retrieved May 23, 2014
   In British Standards Classification of Typefaces (BS 2961:1967), the following are defined:
   Grotesque: Lineale typefaces with 19th-century origins. There is some contrast in thickness of strokes. They have squareness of curve, and curling close-set jaws. The R usually has a curled leg and the G is spurred. The ends of the curved strokes are usually oblique. Examples include the Stephenson Blake Grotesques, Condensed Sans No. 7, Monotype Headline Bold.
   Neo-grotesque: Lineale typefaces derived from the grotesque. They have less stroke contrast and are more regular in design. The jaws are more open than in the true grotesque and the g is often open-tailed. The ends of the curved strokes are usually horizontal. Examples include Edel/Wotan, Univers, Helvetica.
   Humanist: Lineale typefaces based on the proportions of inscriptional Roman capitals and Humanist or Garalde lower-case, rather than on early grotesques. They have some stroke contrast, with two-storey a and g. Examples include Optima, Gill Sans, Pascal.
   Geometric: Lineale typefaces constructed on simple geometric shapes, circle or rectangle. Usually monoline, and often with single-storey a. Examples include Futura, Erbar, Eurostile.
5. ^ ^abShinn, Nick. 'Uniformity'(PDF). Nick Shinn. Graphic Exchange. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
6. ^Coles, Stephen. 'Helvetica alternatives'. FontFeed (archived). Archived from the original on 2 January 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2015.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
7. ^ ^abcBerry, John. 'A Neo-Grotesque Heritage'. Adobe Systems. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
8. ^ ^abSpecimens of type, borders, ornaments, brass rules and cuts, etc. : catalogue of printing machinery and materials, wood goods, etc. American Type Founders Company. 1897. p. 340. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
9. ^'Italic Gothic'. Fonts in Use. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
10. ^Hoefler & Frere-Jones. 'Knockout'. Hoefler & Frere-Jones. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
11. ^Hoefler & Frere-Jones. 'Knockout sizes'. Hoefler & Frere-Jones.
12. ^'Knockout styles'. Hoefler & Frere-Jones. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
13. ^Lippa, Domenic. '10 favourite fonts'. The Guardian. Retrieved 1 July 2015.
14. ^Meggs 2011, pp. 376-377.
15. ^Adi Kusrianto. Pengantar Tipografi. Elex Media Komputindo. p. 66. ISBN978-979-27-8132-8.
16. ^Lagerkvist, Love. 'American Football'. Fonts In Use. Retrieved 18 June 2017. Imago [is] a relatively obscure neo-grotesk released by Berthold in the early ’80s.
17. ^Slimbach, Robert. 'Using Acumin'. Acumin microsite. Adobe Systems. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
18. ^Twardoch, Slimbach, Sousa, Slye (2007). Arno Pro(PDF). San Jose: Adobe Systems. Retrieved 14 August 2015.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
19. ^Coles, Stephen. 'New Additions: November 2015'. Identifont. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
20. ^'Fontshop lists: Neo-grotesque'. FontShop. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
21. ^Ulrich, Ferdinand. 'A short intro to the geometric sans'. FontShop. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
22. ^Ulrich, Ferdinand. 'Types of their time – A short history of the geometric sans'. FontShop. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
23. ^Kupferschmid, Indra. 'On Erbar and Early Geometric Sans Serifs'. CJ Type. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
24. ^Meggs 2011, pp. 339-340.
25. ^ ^abDay, Kenneth (1956). The Typography of Press Advertisement. pp. 86–8.
26. ^Kupferschmid, Indra. 'True Type of the Bauhaus'. Fonts in Use. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
27. ^Tselentis, Jason (August 28, 2017). 'Typodermic's Raymond Larabie Talks Type, Technology & Science Fiction'. How. Retrieved October 29, 2017.
28. ^Kupferschmid, Indra. 'Some type genres explained'. kupferschrift (blog). Retrieved 31 October 2017.
29. ^ ^abTracy 1986, pp. 86-90.
30. ^Nash, John. 'In Defence of the Roman Letter'(PDF). Journal of the Edward Johnston Foundation. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
31. ^Blackwell, written by Lewis (2004). 20th-century type (Rev. ed.). London: Laurence King. p. 201. ISBN9781856693516.
32. ^Lawson 1990, pp. 326-330.
33. ^Berry, John D. 'Not Your Father's Sans Serif'. Creative Pro. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
34. ^Berry, John D. 'The Human Side of Sans Serif'. Creative Pro. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
35. ^Coles, Stephen. 'Questioning Gill Sans'. Typographica. Retrieved 18 December 2015.
36. ^Kupferschmid, Indra. 'Gill Sans Alternatives'. Kupferschrift. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
37. ^Calvert, Margaret. 'New Transport'. A2-TYPE. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
38. ^Coles, Stephen. 'Identifont blog Feb 15'. Identifont. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
39. ^ ^abMosley, James (January 6, 2007), The Nymph and the Grot, an update, archived from the original on June 10, 2014, retrieved June 10, 2014
40. ^'Perkins School for the Blind'. Perkins School for the Blind. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
41. ^Johnston, Alastair. 'Robert Grabhorn Collection on the History of Printing'. San Francisco Public Library. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
42. ^ ^abcdeMosley, James. 'Comments on Typophile thread - 'Unborn: sans serif lower case in the 19th century''. Typophile (archived). Archived from the original on 28 June 2014. Retrieved 15 October 2016.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
43. ^ ^abcdefghMosley, James (1999). The Nymph and the Grot: the Revival of the Sanserif Letter. London: Friends of the St Bride Printing Library. pp. 1–19. ISBN9780953520107.
44. ^John L Walters (2 September 2013). Fifty Typefaces That Changed the World: Design Museum Fifty. Octopus. pp. 1913–5. ISBN978-1-84091-649-2.
45. ^Barnes, Paul. 'James Mosley: A Life in Objects'. Eye. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
46. ^Gell, William (1810). The Itinerary of Greece. London. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
47. ^Alexander Nesbitt (1998). The History and Technique of Lettering. Courier Corporation. p. 160. ISBN978-0-486-40281-9.
48. ^Mosley, James. 'The Nymph and the Grot: an Update'. Typefoundry blog. Retrieved 12 December 2015.
49. ^ ^abcdJames Mosley, The Nymph and the Grot: the revival of the sanserif letter, London: Friends of the St Bride Printing Library, 1999
50. ^'L. Y.'. 'To the Editor of the European Magazine'. European Magazine. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
51. ^Callingham, James (1871). Sign Writing and Glass Embossing. pp. 54–55.
52. ^L. Parramore (13 October 2008). Reading the Sphinx: Ancient Egypt in Nineteenth-Century Literary Culture. Springer. pp. 22–3. ISBN978-0-230-61570-0.
53. ^Jason Thompson (30 April 2015). Wonderful Things: A History of Egyptology 1: From Antiquity to 1881. The American University in Cairo Press. pp. 251–2. ISBN978-977-416-599-3.
54. ^Southey, Robert (1808). Letters from England: by Don Manual Alvarez Espriella. pp. 274–5.
55. ^Farington, Joseph; Greig, James (1924). The Farington Diary, Volume III, 1804-1806. London: Hutchinson & Co. p. 109. Retrieved 15 October 2016.
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57. ^Specimen of Plain & Ornamental Types from the Foundry of V. & J. Figgins. London: V. & J. Figgins Letterfounders. 1846. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
58. ^Tracy, Walter (2003). Letters of credit : a view of type design. Boston: David R. Godine. ISBN9781567922400.
59. ^Tam, Keith (2002). Calligraphic tendencies in the development of sanserif types in the twentieth century(PDF). Reading: University of Reading (MA thesis).
60. ^Simon Loxley (12 June 2006). Type: The Secret History of Letters. I.B.Tauris. pp. 36–8. ISBN978-1-84511-028-4.
61. ^'The Song of the Sans Serif'. The Centre for Printing History and Culture. Retrieved 16 October 2016.
62. ^ ^abMosley, James; Shinn, Nick. 'Two Lines English Egyptian (comments on forum)'. Typophile. Retrieved 30 October 2017. [T]he Figgins ‘Sans-serif’ types (so called) are well worth looking at. In fact it might be said to be that with these types the Figgins typefoundry brought the design into typography, since the original Caslon Egyptian appeared only briefly in a specimen and has never been seen in commercial use. One size of the Figgins Sans-serif appears in a specimen dated 1828 (the unique known copy is in the University Library, Amsterdam).…It is a self-confident design, which in the larger sizes abandons the monoline structure of the Caslon letter for a thick-thin modulation which would remain a standard model through the 19th century, and can still be seen in the ATF Franklin Gothic. Note that there is no lower-case. That would come, after 1830, with the innovative condensed ‘Grotesque’ of the Thorowgood foundry, which provided a model for type that would get large sizes into the lines of posters. It gave an alternative name to the design, and both the new features – the condensed proportions and the addition of lower-case – broke the link with Roman inscriptional capitals…But the antiquarian associations of the design were still there, at least in the smaller sizes, as the specimen of the Pearl size (four and three quarters points) of Figgins’s type shows. It uses the text of the Latin inscription prepared for the rebuilt London Bridge, which was opened on 1 August 1831.
63. ^Morlighem, Sebastien (September 30, 2016). Nineteenth-century sans serif typefaces in France(PDF) (Speech). The Song of the Sans-serif. Birmingham City University.
64. ^Meggs 2011, p. 155.
65. ^Handover, Phyllis Margaret (1958). 'Grotesque Letters'. Monotype Newsletter, also printed in Motif as 'Letters without Serifs'.
66. ^Lawson, Alexander S., Anatomy of a Typeface, David R. Godine, Publisher, Boston, Massachusetts, 1990, ISBN0-87923-333-8, p. 296.
67. ^Handbuch der Schriftarten. Leipzig: Seeman. 1926.
68. ^Homola, Wolfgang. 'Type design in the age of the machine. The 'Breite Grotesk' by J. G. Schelter & Giesecke'(PDF). University of Reading (archived). Archived from the original on 12 January 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2018.CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
69. ^Behrens, Peter (1900), Feste des Lebens und der Kunst: eine Betrachtung des Theaters als höchsten Kultursymbols (in German), Eugen Diederichs
70. ^Meggs 2011, p. 242.
71. ^Badaracco, Claire (1991). 'Innovative Industrial Design and Modern Public Culture: The Monotype Corporation, 1922–1932'(PDF). Business & Economic History. Business History Conference. 20 (second series): 226–233. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
72. ^'Promotional Poster, 1928'. Red List. Monotype.
73. ^Rogers, Updike, McCutcheon (1939). The work of Bruce Rogers, jack of all trades, master of one : a catalogue of an exhibition arranged by the American Institute of Graphic Arts and the Grolier Club of New York. New York: Grolier Club, Oxford University Press. pp. xxxv–xxxvii.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
74. ^Updike, Daniel Berkeley (1922). Printing types : their history, forms, and use; a study in survivals vol 2 (1st ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 243. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
75. ^Lawson, Alexander (1990). Anatomy of a typeface (1st ed.). Boston: Godine. p. 330. ISBN9780879233334.
76. ^Frazier, J.L. (1925). Type Lore. Chicago. p. 20. Retrieved 24 August 2015.
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80. ^East Coast Joys: Tom Purvis and the LNER
81. ^Horn, Frederick A. (1936). 'Type Tactics No. 2: Grotesques: The Sans Serif Vogue'. Commercial Art. 20 (132–135): http://magazines.iaddb.org/issue/CAI/1936-04-01/edition/null/page/18.
82. ^Rhatigan, Dan. 'Futura: The Typeface of Today and Tomorrow'. Ultrasparky. Retrieved 21 January 2018.
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84. ^Paul Shaw (April 2017). Revival Type: Digital Typefaces Inspired by the Past. Yale University Press. pp. 210–3. ISBN978-0-300-21929-6.
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88. ^Brideau, K.; Berret, C. (16 December 2014). 'A Brief Introduction to Impact: 'The Meme Font''. Journal of Visual Culture. 13 (3): 307–313. doi:10.1177/1470412914544515.
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